At the Frontier of Literacy Development for Multilingual Learners: Evidence-Based Options for Educators

This is the third and final post in the series, "Foundations, Futures, and Frontiers: Reimagining Early Literacy for Multilingual Learners". We invite you to click on the links to read the Introduction, Post #1 ("Building Strong Foundations: What We Still Need to Learn About Young Multilingual Readers and Writers"), and Post #2 ("Future in Focus: Rethinking the Science of Reading for Multilingual Early Learners"). Enjoy! 

 

Given the national demographic imperative and opportunity, multilingual learners cannot be an afterthought in our planning or our teaching. Rather, young emergent bilinguals can and should serve as our north star, guiding us toward more inclusive, responsive, and innovative educational practices. Their experiences illuminate the frontiers of literacy, where language, culture, and identity intersect to shape how educators design learning and how students make meaning. 

Multilingual students in their preschool and early elementary years bring profound strengths to their learning processes, while facing some challenges. Their languages, cultural practices, and home literacies are not peripheral; they are compasses that point the way toward more equitable and expansive understandings of how children learn to read, write, and communicate (Cummins, 2001; Moll, Amanti, Neff, & González, 1992). When educators intentionally design instruction that draws upon these funds of knowledge, they extend the boundaries of traditional literacy practice and create classrooms that mirror the multilingual world students inhabit (González, Moll, & Amanti, 2005; García & Kleifgen, 2018). These shifts in mindset away from deficit thinking and toward asset-based, translanguaging, and bilingual approaches, invite educators to cross boundaries and venture into uncharted educational landscapes (García & Wei, 2014; Espinosa, 2021). In this vast and evolving landscape, multilingual learners are not at the margins; they are trailblazers who expand our definitions of literacy, identity, and belonging.

Therefore, we return to our original premise that early literacy development is foundational and, simultaneously, an emerging frontier. In this final installment of our three-part series, Foundations, Futures, and Frontiers: Reimagining Early Literacy for Multilingual Learners, we draw on the literature and our experiences as educators to pose evidence-based pathways for teachers, leaders, and parents seeking to better serve young language learners. It follows that multilingualism is not a barrier to literacy - it is, indeed, a north star and a superpower, lighting the way forward for young learners and their educators.

Tackling the “yeah, buts”: Naming Some Tensions on the Frontier

Whenever we start talking about multilingual learners as trailblazers and guides for early literacy, the “yeah, buts” are quick to surface. And do not worry, we all possess “yeah, buts” when it comes to our own students and settings. Let’s dive in. 

Key Idea: Children can benefit from learning to read in two languages (or more!) at the same time.

 . . . Yeah, but, wouldn’t it be better if they were taught basic sounds in one language at a time?

 . . . Yeah, but, doesn’t it just add to their confusion to go between two languages, two sets of sounds, etc.?

 . . . Yeah, but, learning to read in one language is hard enough!

 . . . Yeah, but, students will not be prepared to complete grade level assessments or standardized tests if they are spending so much time learning two languages.

. . . Yeah, but, what if families don’t speak or read much English at home?

These are all fair questions. Many of us were trained in systems that emphasized “mastery before mixing,” so the idea of teaching reading in two languages at once can feel like uncharted territory. But here’s the good news: research tells a very different story.

As educators and parents, we may worry that young learners need to fully master the skills in one language before they are introduced to reading in the other language. However, research indicates that students’ development of a second language does not impede first language development (Alanís & Rodriguez, 2008; Luft Baker et al., 2012). Studies show that foundational early literacy skills  transfer between languages (Colorín Colorado, 2015; Meyer, 2010). Moreover, 30-40% of words in English and Spanish are cognates, meaning that young, multilingual learners of these languages have a significant common repertoire that they can draw upon (Meyer, 2010). 

Yes, kids might mix things up now and then, using a Spanish sound in an English word or switching word order, but that’s not confusion - it is cognitive flexibility, the brain’s way of stretching and strengthening across linguistic systems. It’s like watching a young athlete train with both hands or a musician learning two instruments. The more they practice, the better their overall coordination and understanding become.

Another common concern is that standardized testing in most U.S. states is still predominantly or exclusively administered in English, so adults may fear that multilingual learners will not be fully prepared for assessments if their literacy instruction time is allocated to two languages. Nevertheless, research shows that with some translanguaging support to intentionally learn to bridge between both languages, they can be successful on English language standardized assessments; at times outpacing their peers (Flores & Murillo, 2001). So rather than seeing bilingual literacy as a detour, we can see it as a more scenic and sustainable route across the literacy frontier.

Evidence-Based Options for Educators

It is helpful to look closely at the landscapes where these ideas come to life and research points us toward three promising pathways - incorporating translanguaging practices into instruction, exploring an early childhood language-intensive preschool model, and unpacking dual language immersion frameworks.

Translanguaging Practices

Translanguaging is the dynamic process through which multilingual learners draw on their full linguistic repertoire, often moving seamlessly between languages in order to deepen understanding, express ideas, and connect learning across contexts. Check out this short two-minute tip on translanguaging from the ALMA team to learn more. As we explore translanguaging, it is important that we get our bearings straight on what this practice IS and ISN’T.

Translanguaging IS . . . 

• A multilingual speaker strategically using their full linguistic repertoire (all the languages, dialects, and expressions they know) to think, learn, and communicate.
• Fluid, allowing learners to move naturally between languages as they connect ideas.
• Creative and dynamic, reflecting the real ways people use language in the world.
• A way to affirm identity and strengthen academic learning through linguistic flexibility.
• Beautiful in its expression of culture, connection, and cognitive growth.

What Translanguaging ISN’T:

• Two separate parts of the brain that don’t interact with each other.

• Simple word-for-word translation or mechanical language mixing.

• Lazy, disrespectful, or a sign of being off-task.

• A way of avoiding academic language or rigorous learning.

• Strict language separation, by class period, content area, lead teacher, or time of day. While a worthy goal and useful to fully immerse students in the target language, it can limit students’ ability to use all of the language(s) that they know to make meaning.

Source: https://www.barefootteflteacher.com/p/translanguaging-interlanguage-codeswitching

 

Getting Started with Translanguaging:

1. Familiarize yourself with students’ linguistic profiles through surveys, one-on-one conversations. and parent-teacher conferences. Tool: WIDA’s ABC’s of family engagement 
2. Introduce students to translanguaging, including examples and non-examples. Tool: How translanguaging can be a part of any lesson
3. Model translanguaging regularly, both yourself and/or with student volunteers. Tool: Bilingual classroom labels
4. Signal or directly state when and how to strategically use translanguaging in an activity. Tool: Google Slide Word Wall
5. Review options for translanguaging tools and resources. Tool: Mama Lisa’s World
6. Include translanguaging as a regular practice in your classroom so that students become accustomed to a linguistically-inclusive environment. Tool: Free, Digital Multilingual Books and Libraries

Observe, adjust, and respond to students, rather than making assumptions about their language knowledge and skills. Tool: Strategies for grouping English Learners

Why try implementing translanguaging in your early literacy classroom? Of the options we have laid out, it is the easiest to begin to implement right away. By deliberately communicating to students that their home languages are welcome in your classroom and providing a few scaffolds like the tools we recommended above, you can begin to take steps towards a translanguaging pedagogy. 

ECLIP: A Hopeful Early Start

We in the ALMA team have spent the last six years thinking about language development at an early childhood level and are excited to share some early and hopeful findings (and a few things for you to consider in your early grades). The Early Childhood Language Intensive Program (ECLIP) assists Catholic schools with implementing bilingual programming at the early childhood level with a focus on Pre-Kindergarten and Kindergarten. Now in its fifth year of implementation, ECLIP provides curricular resources created by our team and teacher formation to help students - both English speakers and Spanish speakers - to develop foundational literacy skills in Spanish. The ECLIP program is rooted in sharing faith, knowledge, language, and culture through developmentally appropriate, engaging lessons, led by fluent Spanish speakers. It provides a creative way to engage young children at an age when their brains easily acquire language (Kershen & Cruz Martinez, 2025).

The research on multilingual early childhood education indicates that for young learners, school readiness and success is tied to their mastery of their home language (Wang & Xiang, 2016). ECLIP provides thirty minutes of daily Spanish language early literacy instruction for PreKinder and Kindergarten students whose home language is Spanish and their peers, who may speak English or an additional language at home. Second, the research is clear that foundational literacy skills transfer between languages, benefitting all learners (Luft Baker et al., 2011). Given that it is easier to learn to read in Spanish because of the consistent sound/letter correspondence and the fact that the five vowels only make one sound apiece, it is simply easier to learn to decode in Spanish for all students, whether they speak Spanish at home or not (Colorado DOE, 2025). Administrators may be surprised to hear that multilingual preschool for young English learners saves money by reducing the need for future intervention, such all pull-out or push-in English development services (Nascimiento, 2016). Finally, in the context of Catholic schools, which is our sphere of influence, our global Catholic faith invites and encourages appreciation for different languages and cultures as expressions of God’s character and creative work in the world (USCCB, 2025).

While learning to read in Spanish is important for its own sake, these skills also benefit students’ English literacy skills (Helios, 2020; NYSED, 2025). The ECLIP program design is undergirded by research indicating that learning foundational phonics and reading skills in Spanish is a helpful bridge to English literacy (Colorín Colorado, 2015; Meyer, 2010). “Paired bilingual” reading programs (i.e. instruction that supports both languages) show more growth in oral reading fluency in English than English‐only programs for Spanish‐speaking ELs in the early grades (1st‑3rd) (Luft Baker et al., 2012). Strong early Spanish‐reading skills (before/during kindergarten) are linked to better English reading growth, even among children who have lower English proficiency initially (Eunjung Relyea & Amendum, 2019). 

In its 5th year of implementation, the Early Childhood Language Intensive Program (ECLIP) has produced the following student learning outcomes, as reported by teachers and principals on program evaluation surveys (pre and post):

• At the PreKinder level of ECLIP, teachers indicated that 100% of their students recognize and can name all 27 letters of the alphabet in Spanish. Additionally, 93% of students can recite a prayer by memory in Spanish.
• Moving on to the Kindergarten level of ECLIP, teachers reported that 100% of their students recognize syllables in Spanish, 50% can read words in Spanish, and 50% can read decodable books in Spanish.
• For one ECLIP teacher: “This program gave me the confidence to grow from an aide into a teaching role. It was a very powerful experience for me, inviting me to share my language, culture, and stories with children at a very young age when their brains are primed to absorb language.”
• When asked about their school’s experience implementing ECLIP, 91.7% of principals agreed or strongly agreed that implementing ECLIP has made bilingual early childhood programming easy to execute, 83.4% found that ECLIP helped elevate the status of bilingualism in their school. Additionally, 83.4% of leaders said that ECLIP helped diversify school wide cultural and faith celebrations and 58.3% noted that ECLIP played a role in helping their school increase enrollment.
• For one of the principals who has implemented ECLIP in their school: “This program helped unleash a wellspring of energy in our entire school, not just our preschool . . . for the first time ever, we celebrated a bilingual school Mass.” (ECLIP Principal)

Dual Language Immersion Programs

Dual language immersion (DLI) is arguably the ideal educational model in contexts where there is a high percentage of students with a home language other than English and a high predominance of a single language other than English (Eunjung Relyea & Amendum, 2019; Guiguere & Hoff, 2024). As mentioned previously, introducing English learners who speak Spanish at home, as well as students who speak other home languages (including English), at a young age provides a fast track to “crack the code” of reading  (Meyer, 2010). According to research, dual language instruction produces the best longitudinal outcomes for English learners, improving academic achievement, belonging, and equity (Luft Baker et al., 2011). Thus, dual language instruction is a valuable educational model in contexts where there is a single predominant home language (usually Spanish in the U.S. context) in addition to English. DLI programs provide robust language learning support for students who speak a home language other than English and can also be beneficial for students who speak English at home (or another language), as learning to read in Spanish is beneficial for its own sake, as well as a pathway to faster decoding in English. 

Depending on the demographic makeup of the area in terms of home languages, dual language immersion may be delivered in a 90-10 model, where students begin immersed in Spanish at the PK or Kindergarten level, and then progressively move to a 50-50 split between Spanish and English, typically by about 3rd-5th grade (Hamman-Ortiz et al., 2022). Another viable model for dual immersion is the 50-50 model, where students split their day between two languages, and often, two teachers (Hamman-Ortiz et al., 2022). This model is typically a good fit for areas that have a fairly even split between home languages. Regardless of the instructional model chosen to deliver dual language immersion, it is vital to conduct a robust feasibility study that engages with all potential stakeholders (parents, students, teachers, administrators, diocesan or district leaders, etc), as well as determines which model, 90-10 or 50-50, might be the best fit for the context.

Conclusion

At the University of Notre Dame’s Center for Literacy Education and ALMA Initiative, we believe that early literacy development is both a foundation and a frontier, especially for multilingual learners whose voices and languages enrich our classrooms. Wrapping up our blog series on multilingual early literacy, we want to emphasize some key takeaways:

• Begin oral language and vocabulary development early (before and upon school entry), in both languages if possible (WIDA, 2016).
• Teach phonological awareness explicitly, and provide decoding instruction that’s systematic (phonics etc.) (Colorado DOE, 2025; Meyers, 2010).
• Implement bilingual/dual‑language/instructional models when feasible, ideally balanced exposure or meaningful use of both languages (Eunjung Relyea & Amendum, 2019; Guiguere & Hoff, 2024).
• Use meaningful, authentic texts and writing/reading tasks; allow students to use their full linguistic repertoires (e.g., their home language) in early stages (WIDA, 2016, 2019).
• Recognize that comprehension may lag behind decoding and attend especially to vocabulary, background knowledge, oral language comprehension (Colorín Colorado, 2015; Luft Baker et al., 2012; Meyers, 2010; WIDA, 2016). 

This three-part series, Foundations, Futures, and Frontiers: Reimagining Early Literacy for Multilingual Learners, explored how educators and schools can foster strong beginnings, imagine bold possibilities, and push the boundaries of what we know about early literacy. In light of the demographic imperative and the legal and ethical commitment to better meet the needs of English learners in their early years of their K-12 schooling journey, we argue that multilingual early literacy is the most viable solution. Our youngest, multilingual learners and their families deserve to bring their linguistic and cultural assets into our classrooms and schools, rather than being asked to leave them at the door, even inadvertently. 

We invite our fellow teachers and administrators to join us in amping up our efforts to meet young multilingual learners’ needs through translanguaging, ECLIP, and/or dual language immersion. While these early literacy solutions are not one-size-fits-all, they represent infinite possibilities for our youngest learners’ multilingual superpowers and a north star for us as teachers, leaders, and/or parents.

 

References

Alanís, I. & Rodriguez, M.A. (2008). Sustaining a dual language immersion program: Features of success, Journal of Latinos and Education, 7(4), 305–319

Barefoot TEFL Teacher. (2024). Translanguaging, Interlanguage, and Code-Switching–What’s the Difference? https://www.barefootteflteacher.com/p/translanguaging-interlanguage-codeswitching

Colorado Department of Education. (2025). Phoneme Similarities and Differences in Spanish and English. https://www.cde.state.co.us/coloradoliteracy/phonemesimilaritiesinenglishandspanish

Colorín Colorado (2015). Early Literacy Instruction in Spanish: Teaching the beginning reader. https://www.colorincolorado.org/article/early-literacy-instruction-spanish-teaching-beginning-reader

Eunjung Relyea, J. & Addendum, S.J. (2019). English reading growth in Spanish-speaking bilingual students: Moderating effect of English proficiency on cross-linguistic influence. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31313281/

Flores, S. Y., & Murillo, E. G, Jr. (2001). Power, language, and ideology: Historical and contemporary notes on the dismantling of bilingual education. Urban Review, 33(3), 183–206.

Guiguere, D. & Hoff, E. (2024). Bilingual children's vocabulary skills at 5 years predict reading comprehension development within, not across, languages. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38425731/

Helios Education Foundation (2020). Dual language education for young learners: Lessons in literacy and language acquisition for educators. https://www.helios.org/media/5yec5opj/dual-language-immersion-for-young-learners.pdf

Kershen, K. & Cruz Martinez, J. (2025). Children versus adults–Who wins the second language acquisition match? https://sites.psu.edu/bilingualismmatters/winter-spring-2020/children-vs-adults-who-wins-the-second-language-acquisition-match/

Luft Baker, D., Stoolmiller, M., Good III, R.H. & Baker, S.K. (2011) Effect of Reading Comprehension on Passage Fluency in Spanish and English for Second-Grade English Learners, School Psychology Review, 40:3, 331-351.

Meyer, K.A. (2010). Supporting early Spanish literacy in dual language classrooms. Soleado, Winter 2010, 10-11.

Nascimiento, F.C. (2016). Benefits of dual language immersion on the academic achievement of English language learners. The International Journal of Literacies, 24(1), 1-15.

New York State Education Department. (2025). Science of reading: The PreK years. New York State Literacy Initiative. Brief 4 of 7, 1-5. 

United States Catholic Conference of Bishops. 2025). Guidelines for a Multilingual Celebration of Mass. ​​https://www.usccb.org/prayer-and-worship/the-mass/frequently-asked-questions/guidelines-for-a-multilingual-celebration-of-mass

Wang, L., & Xiang, Y. (2016). Language transfer and literacy connections in bilingual education. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 19(4), 422–437.

WIDA (2016). Can do descriptors: Early years. https://wida.wisc.edu/sites/default/files/resource/CanDo-Descriptors-Early-Years.pdf

WIDA (2019). Guiding principles of language development. https://wida.wisc.edu/sites/default/files/resource/Guiding-Principles-of-Language-Development.pdf